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    مُساهمة من طرف HeMa PoP الجمعة مارس 21, 2008 6:11 pm

    Introduction

    There
    is a lot of power to cloning. But, should we make use of cloning with
    no restrictions? Should cloning be used on humans? How and when should
    cloning be used? Before we start to answer these questions, we should
    learn more about cloning..

    What is Cloning?
    1- The
    dictionary says cloning is the technique of producing a genetically
    identical duplicate of an organism. A clone is said to be all
    descendants derived asexually from a single individual, as by
    cuttings(like in plants), bulb divisions (like in tulips or daffodils)
    , by fission, by mitosis, or by parthenogenesis reproduction. Here are
    some examples

    2-Cloning is the process of making a genetically
    identical organism through nonsexual means. It has been used for many
    years to produce plants (even growing a plant from a cutting is a type
    of cloning). Animal cloning has been the subject of scientific
    experiments for years, but garnered little attention until the birth of
    the first cloned mammal in 1997, a sheep named Dolly. Since Dolly,
    several scientists have cloned other animals, including cows and mice.
    The recent success in cloning animals has sparked fierce debates among
    scientists, politicians and the general public
    History and Science
    Cloning
    (from the Greek word klon, a twig or slip) is a natural process of
    asexual reproduction found in many plants and some animals. When
    strawberry plants send out runners that set roots and turn into new
    plants, this is an example of a plant naturally cloning itself. Even
    artificial cloning is not entirely new. For hundreds of years gardeners
    have taken slips (small shoots or twigs cut from plants) and rooted
    them to produce new plants in a process that could also be described as
    cloning. Then in the 1970s scientists began experiments in artificial
    cloning with frogs and toads, and subsequently with other animal
    embryos. But it was not until the successful SCNT cloning of the sheep
    "Dolly," performed in 1996 and formally announced in February 1997 by
    the Roslin Institute in Scotland, that it became clear something
    similar might be possible with mammals.
    Mammals have two kinds of
    cells: somatic cells (many of which can reproduce themselves by clone
    like division, but only themselves and not a whole organism) and sex
    cells (which come in two forms, ovum in females and sperm in males).
    The SCNT process works as follows: The nucleus is removed from a
    somatic cell of either a female or a male. An unfertilized ovum is
    taken from a female and has its nucleus removed and then replaced with
    the somatic cell nucleus. The resulting ovum with a somatic cell
    nucleus is then stimulated and implanted in a female womb to grow to
    term. The resulting offspring is genetically identical to the
    individual that was the source of the original somatic nucleus.
    The
    technology of cloning is thought to be feasible in many mammalian
    species, including humans. As of 2005, successes in cloning of many
    species have been achieved. But neither the cloning of primates nor of
    humans has been successful as yet. Human somatic cell nuclear transfer,
    if successful in producing offspring, would not be "duplication"
    because identical genomes do not produce identical phenotypes.
    Nevertheless, Korean scientists have used cloning technology to produce
    cloned embryos, and subsequent experiments have furthered such
    technologies, which are aimed at producing embryonic stem cells On
    January 8, 2001, scientists at Advanced Cell Technology, Inc.,
    announced the birth of the first clone of an endangered animal, a baby
    bull gaur (a large wild ox from India and southeast Asia) named Noah.
    Although Noah died of an infection unrelated to the procedure, the
    experiment demonstrated that it is possible to save endangered species
    through cloning.

    Human Cloning
    Human cloning is the process
    of transplanting nuclear DNA from an adult individual into an egg where
    the nucleus has been removed. The egg grows into an embryo to produce
    an exact copy of the nuclear genome from the donor DNA without ever
    needing sperm to fertilize the egg. Dr. Ian Wilmut coined this
    technique somatic cell nuclear transfer after the first successful
    attempt at cloning a mammal, a sheep named Dolly, using adult somatic
    cells.
    Advocates of human cloning suggest that somatic cell nuclear
    transfer may be a useful method for solving infertility problems or
    preventing inherited mitochondrial disease in offspring. For example,
    if a husband is infertile or a wife has a mitochondrial disease, the
    wife's somatic nuclei could be transferred into the cytoplasm of a
    donor egg and implanted into the wife's womb without ever needing
    sperm. This is the same procedure that was used to clone the sheep,
    Dolly, in Scotland at the Roslin Institute in 1997; however, Dolly
    developed in the womb of her foster mother who donated the cytoplasm
    rather than her genetically identical mother. In both situations, the
    cloned offspring is not an exact copy of the mother's somatic nuclei
    because of the mitochondrial DNA located in the cytoplasm of the donor
    eggs. Some researchers argue that somatic cell nuclear transfer is not
    a cloning technique, but rather a method for treating infertility.
    Other
    scientists claim that attempting to clone humans would result in
    miscarriages, stillbirths, and major organ defects that would
    eventually lead to death. Currently, 98% of animals that are cloned die
    during the gestational period and many of the animals that are born
    suffer from birth defects. Researchers at the Roslin Institute made 277
    attempts before they were able to successfully create Dolly. Although
    Dolly has proven to be a normal sheep, researchers have discovered that
    Dolly has shorter than normal tips on the ends of her chromosomes
    called telomeres. Telomeres shorten with age suggesting that Dolly may
    have a shorter life span than the average sheep. Cloning does not
    result in genetic defect, but rather something goes array during the
    reprogramming process that stimulates life. Usually reprogramming is
    stimulated during fertilization when the sperm unites with the egg;
    however, fertilization does not occur during cloning and electrical
    stimulation is necessary to generate the reprogramming process.
    According
    to Advanced Cell Technology (ACT), the first human cloned embryo was
    pioneered in November 1998. DNA was taken from the skin on a man's leg
    and transplanted into the egg of a cow that grew for twelve days before
    scientists aborted the experiment. Some scientists claim that human
    cloning has begun at the Institute for Reproductive Medicine and
    Science of St. Barnabas Medical Center in New Jersey. Others argue that
    genetically modifying babies does not amount to human cloning. Fifteen
    babies were born as a result of cytoplasm from the eggs of donor
    mothers being transplanted into the eggs of infertile women.
    Mitochondria in the cytoplasm contain their own genetic sequence that
    was thought to be the cause of infertility. Sperm from the father was
    then injected to fertilize the egg. This technique called the ooplasmic
    transfer was further used at other facilities to produce fifteen more
    babies.
    Supporters of human cloning contend that cloning would be
    beneficial as a therapeutic treatment for people with diseases and
    other medically related problems. Stem cell technology is a cloning
    based method used to grow stem cells in order to develop specialized
    tissues that may help repair dead or damaged tissues and organs. For
    example, healthy heart cells could be cloned and injected into damaged
    areas of the heart in a heart attack victim. Some researchers propose
    that cloning could be used to treat such problems as nerve damage,
    diabetes, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, heart failure,
    severe burns, lung damage, liver failure, kidney failure, and cancer.
    Advocates of human cloning reason that cloning one's own cells rather
    than transplant organs or engineering tissues to replace dead or
    damaged ones, will prevent rejection from their immune system. Other
    supporters feel that producing cloned offspring will allow couples to
    have biological children that they would have otherwise been unable to
    conceive because of either infertility problems or genetic defects.
    Should the Cloning of Human Beings Be Prohibited?
    Viewpoint:
    Yes, because of the potential physical dangers and the profound ethical
    dilemmas it poses, the cloning of human beings should be prohibited.

    Viewpoint:
    No, the cloning of human beings should not be prohibited because the
    potential for medical accidents or malfeasance is grossly overstated,
    and the ethical questions raised by detractors are not unique to
    cloning—indeed, ethical questions attend every scientific advancement.
    Since
    the birth of Dolly, the cloned sheep, in 1997, several reproductive
    scientists, including Severino Antinori, Brigitte Boisselier, and
    Panayiotis Michael Zavos, have announced that they were ready to clone
    human beings. However, cloning mammals is still a highly experimental
    technique. Scientists involved in cloning various mammals have reported
    many technical problems. A large majority of the clones die during
    gestation or soon after birth. Placental malfunction seems to be a
    major cause of death. Many of the surviving clones are plagued with
    serious physiological and genetic problems. During embryological
    development, cloned sheep, cows, pigs, and mice tend to become
    unusually large. Clones are often born with a condition called "large
    offspring syndrome," as well as severe respiratory and circulatory
    defects, malformations of the brain or kidneys, or immune dysfunction.
    It is not yet known whether clones will develop and age normally, or
    whether subtle failures in genomic reprogramming or genetic imprinting
    might lead to various defects. Many scientists believe that, at least
    in the near future, experiments in human cloning would involve many
    failures, miscarriages, stillbirths, and the birth of deformed babies.
    Some observers think that the reckless claims made by some scientists
    stimulated the passage of premature Congressional legislation that
    would ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic
    (non-reproductive). Similar reactions have occurred in other nations.
    For example, the French and German governments jointly asked the United
    Nations to call for a world.....

    Conclusion
    The cloning of
    animals could result in considerable economic benefits. Every effort
    should be made, however, to preserve the original genetic diversity by
    maintaining at least small herds of the original donors. Cloning of
    humans, on the other hand, including research directed towards that
    end, is totally unacceptable and must be prohibited by law. Just
    recently nineteen countries from Europe, Scandinavia, and the Near East
    signed an agreement to prohibit human cloning. It has
    been
    announced that a proposal for an emergency prohibition on the cloning
    of humans will be introduced in the U.S. Congress in the session
    beginning in January 1998. In response to the claim by a physicist that
    he will soon initiate research on human cloning, the Federal Food and
    Drug Administration warned that this agency will shut down any such
    efforts that are without its permission. It should be clear that with
    human cloning vital interests rest not on any potential
    successes, but on its certain failures.
    The as yet unsuccessful attempts to correct genetic diseases (such as
    hemophilia) through genetic manipulation will be discussed in a future
    article. Also to be covered are the successful production of human
    proteins in the milk of pigs, cows, and sheep, as well as the
    introduction of beneficial changes in plants by genetic manipulation.
    It must be borne in mind that all such genetic manipulations merely use
    what God has produced and are limited by the fact that genetic systems
    are incredibly complex and are difficult to manipulate without
    producing harmful and even lethal results. We can repair defective
    genetic systems, but we cannot improve a normal, healthy genetic
    system.
    The question is often asked, would a human clone have a
    soul? Absolutely. Occasionally some people are troubled by the assumed
    possibility that human manipulation will present a problem too hard for
    God to solve. But with God nothing is impossible. He is always far
    ahead and above anything man may do. In fact, I am a clone, just as is
    true of all others who have identical twins. I am certain that both my
    twin brother and I have a God-given soul.

    Resources
    1-http://science.howstuffworks.com/cloning1.htm
    http://www.bookrags.com/research/should-the-cloning-of-human-beings--sind-01/
    http://www.bookrags.com/research/human-cloning-wog/
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    ذكر
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    مُساهمة من طرف عاشق الشفايف الحمر السبت مارس 29, 2008 12:52 pm

    شكرااا ليييك يا هيمااااا وجزاااك الله كل خيير
    ساحرة البشر
    ساحرة البشر
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    انثى
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    مُساهمة من طرف ساحرة البشر الإثنين مارس 31, 2008 2:01 pm

    لا شكرا
    انا اخدت موضوع تاني
    مشكور
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    مُساهمة من طرف medokkh الأربعاء أبريل 02, 2008 7:18 pm

    مشكور على هذا الموضوع
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    مُساهمة من طرف زائر الإثنين سبتمبر 08, 2008 11:19 pm

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